How does the electrical conductivity of group-IV elements
The electrical conductivity of group-IV elements exhibits a trend of increasing with atomic number. While carbon in the form of diamond acts as a true insulator, silicon, and germanium, with higher conductivities, are categorized as semiconductors due to their intermediate nature. Conduction in semiconductors involves the escape of valence electrons from the lattice, leading to the presence of free electrons.
Experimental observations detect measurable concentrations of free electrons in pure silicon and germanium, indicating the existence of a mechanism providing the energy necessary to break covalent bonds. This energy is identified as the bandgap energy, representing the threshold for freeing a valence electron from the crystal lattice. Materials with larger bandgap energies possess strong covalent bonds and fewer free electrons, while those with lower bandgap energies have greater conductivities.
The departure of an electron from the lattice creates a vacancy, resulting in a net positive charge on the ionized atom. This vacancy, known as a hole, moves through the lattice as it is handed from atom to atom. When an electric field is applied across the crystal, free electrons move toward the positive end, while holes behave as positively charged particles and shift toward the negative end.
What is the Generation and Recombination in Semiconductors?
Carriers, including electrons and holes, are generated in pairs whenever a valence electron is removed from the lattice. This generation can occur through various processes like thermal vibration, light absorption, and electron bombardment. The subsequent recombination of carriers is influenced by the semiconductor’s nature, with direct-bandgap semiconductors emitting light when electrons and holes collide. In contrast, indirect-bandgap semiconductors recombine at specific sites called traps.
Recombination centers, such as gold atoms and transition metals, influence carrier recombination and impact the semiconductor’s switching speed. The carrier lifetime, determined by the presence of recombination centers, limits how rapidly a semiconductor device can switch on and off. The deliberate addition of recombination centers, like gold, is employed to enhance switching speeds in high-speed diodes and transistors made from silicon. Overall, the intricate interplay of bandgap energy, carriers, and recombination processes governs the electrical conductivity and functionality of semiconductors.
What is the term used to describe the electrical conductivity of silicon and germanium?
Silicon and germanium are termed semiconductors due to their intermediate conductivities, which are higher than insulators like diamond but lower than metals like tin and lead.
What is the energy source that allows valence electrons to escape the lattice in semiconductors?
The energy needed for valence electrons to escape the lattice comes from random thermal vibrations. The bandgap energy is the energy required to free a valence electron, determining the material’s conductivity: large bandgap, fewer free electrons, and vice versa.
What is a hole in the context of semiconductors?
A hole is a moving electron vacancy. When an electric field is applied, holes behave as if they were positively charged particles, moving toward the negative end of the crystal.
Why are carriers in semiconductors always generated in pairs?
Carriers are generated in pairs because the removal of a valence electron simultaneously forms a hole. Electron-hole pairs can be produced through processes such as thermal vibration, exposure to light, nuclear radiation, electron bombardment, rapid heating, mechanical friction, and other energy-absorbing mechanisms.
What is the role of recombination centers in semiconductors?
Recombination centers aid the recombination of carriers in semiconductors. The more recombination centers present, the shorter the average time between carrier generation and recombination, limiting the switching speed of semiconductor devices. Recombination centers, such as gold atoms or transition metals, can be deliberately added to enhance switching speeds.